Paradise Lost (Renaissance)

Paradise Lost: The Darkest Side of Humankind

Paradise Lost, by John Milton, is an epic poem that deals with history, religion, paganism, and the never-ending battle of good against evil; however, it also depicts the darkest side of humankind that leads people to hurt each other. Throughout time, people have accepted and idealized the proposal of being perverted by someone else. They disagree with the consequences of handling free will improperly. They have found it very comfortable to place the blame of their misbehaviors on someone else: Satan. Nevertheless, the author states that humans are malevolent beings deep inside, and he describes this feature through the demons that rise against God: Belial, Mammon, Beelzebub, Moloch and Satan. Moreover, he praises humans’ ability to recover from chaos and adversity; for example, Adam and Eve represent courage and optimism to overcome the toughest circumstances.

Every demon stands for a repulsive and negative characteristic that human beings have. Beelzebub represents resentment, ill will, malice, and a bitter soul. He is identified as the God of flies; he is a disgusting character unable to recover from rejection. He stands for the necessity of acceptance versus vengeance for being separated from a group. He depicts love and pleasure for causing suffering to others. He is not afraid of chaos and worries about finding the ways out to bite the hand that feeds. Furthermore, Beelzebub makes defiant vows; he promises to keep doing harm without feeling any regret. For instance, “To do ought good never will be our task/ But ever to do ill our sole delight,” (1.159-160). He will continue causing chaos just for the sake of pleasure. Another fallen angel that describes the dreadfulness of human kind is Belial. He represents pusillanimity, the lack of courage to do what it takes to defy God and conquer his reign. He stands for all those people who always complain about everything but do not have the strength to take some action and change it.

In addition, upon Mammon rests unmeasured ambition and selfishness as a different, but not less harmful, human thought and hidden feeling. Humans are envious by nature, but of course if you ask people, they will deny they are. However, when they live in poverty or unhappily, they may feel miserable and blessed-less. They will never be satisfied with the possessions and gifts and have been given. They will always look forward to obtaining more material possessions, though they do not really need it. Moreover, when it comes to power and submitting people may experience even darker feelings. For instance, the demon states: “Either to disinthrone the king of Heaven / We warr, if warr be best, or to regain / Our own right lost/ […] The latter: for what place can be for us” (2.229-231, 235). Ironically, humankinds tend to think that they do deserve better, though they may have not done anything to really merit it.

The fourth demon, Moloch, stands for pain, suffering and sacrifice that people have to undergo. He is strongly attached to chaos and panic that humans usually reject to show to their equals. At the same time, it represents pleasure that some people may feel towards others suffering without feeling any remorse or mercy. Humankind may be selfish by nature; however, they may pretend they feel pity for their brothers and sisters. Their morbid minds feed out of the catastrophes and natural phenomena others may experience, they may act as if they cared; unfortunately, just a few of them really do.

By Pamela Calderon

Shakespearean Sonnets (Renaissance)

Sonnet 29: Is It Love?

Shakespearean sonnets established a new kind of poetry in history. Many experts have analyzed these texts and they have even classified them in groups. That classification influences possible interpretations of the poems predetermining the reader response towards the poems. However, Shakespearean sonnet 29 reveals how love brings profound suffering to a person. The use of ironic phrases is extremely relevant to convey this meaning. For example, the heroic couplet at the end of the poem shows how love actually brings pain to his life. It says: “For thy sweet love rememb’red such wealth brings” (line 13). The use of words such as “sweet” and “wealth” in this line is sarcastic. In fact, this love that the speaker is talking about brings him suffering. It also shows frustration because the speaker has other expectations about his lover. For instance, in the first quatrain, the speaker blames his undesirable fate on his lover. It says: “When in disgrace with Fortune and men’s eyes…/ And look upon myself and curse my fate” (lines 1, 4). The speaker claims that all his deep suffering is his lover’s fault. He has no hope in his life and does not believe in being happy again. In line 12, the speaker reveals his desperation when he “From sullen earth, sings hymns at heaven’s gate” asking for mercy to overcome that painful process. The state described in Shakespearean sonnet 29 cannot be called love because, ideally, real love neither hurt nor cause disgrace to a person. Real love does not bring suffering to a person’s life and does not make it miserable as the speaker in this sonnet is.

Death in Shakespearean Sonnet 73

Shakespearean sonnet 73 shows how human beings are destined to die. Death is totally inevitable in life; there is no life without death. The speaker is talking about his own death. He thinks that he will die soon. The sonnet is addressed to his lover. It seems that his lover does not care about the speakers’ death. The speaker depicts his actual state as sorrowful and desperate. He seems to be in the last time of his life, and he is alone. He describes all his sadness as a scene in fall when he claims: “That time of the year thou mayst in me behold/ When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang” (lines 1-2). In fall, everything seems to be sadder and more silent. His life and his soul are compared to a day in which everything seems to come to an end. He exaggerates his state to make his lover to feel sorry for him. The speaker is asking his lover for mercy. His lover makes his life more miserable because of her indifference. In the heroic couplet, he tries to convince her by saying:” This thou perceiv’st, which makes thy love more strong,/ To love that well which thou must leave ere long” (lines 13-14). The purpose of all the depiction about his death is to try to create a sense of guilt in his lover. However, he is sure that his lover is not going to be there when his life comes to an end. It seems that his lover actually hates him and does not care if he is dead or alive. The inevitability of his death creates desperation on him. He says that in him “Thou seest the twilight of such day as after sunset fadeth in the west” (lines 5-6). His death will be soon and he is desperate about being alone and facing this difficult process alone. Death is an unavoidable part of human life. It always generates fear and desperation when people think about what they could have done in a better way, and now they do not have time to fix anything. The idea of being alone at the end of his life makes the speaker beg his lover for mercy and company.

Destruction in Sonnets 64 and 65

The speaker in sonnets 64 and 65 denounces how human beings destroy valuable elements in life. These two sonnets are analyzed together because they deal with the destruction of wonderful buildings and human nature through time. In the first stanza of sonnet 64, the speaker shows a sorrowful tone when he says: “When I have seen by Time’s fell hand defaced/ The rich, proud cost of outworn buried age” (lines 1-2). In these lines, the speaker is trying to remind the audience of all the beautiful buildings that human beings have destroyed because of ambition and power. It is a reference to the empire and the construction of England and all the wars that devastated many buildings that are not going to be constructed again. In sonnet 65, the speaker deals again with the fragility of the buildings and of human beings. He says: “Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor boundless sea/ But sad mortality o’erways their power” (lines 1-2). Nothing is strong enough to resist human destructive nature. Everything in life can be affected by the strong power of destruction that people have. Human beings like to, ironically, make beautiful constructions and then destroy them to show their power. The speaker also compares the demolition of buildings to the destruction of human nature when he says: “When sometime lofty towers I see down-rased/ and brass eternal slave to mortal rage” (lines 3-4). The “rage” that human beings possess in their souls is manifested in their necessity of eliminating all the beauty that they once created. Human beings have lost many values that were intrinsically related to their nature and behaviors. They have reached a state in which they are no longer able to stop and control their destructive nature. When the speaker says: “I have seen such interchange of state, or state itself confounded to decay,” in sonnet 64, he reveals his total disagreement to those behaviors and how it seems to be a strong negative change without reversal (lines 9-10). Even though it seems to be a completely negative scenario, the speaker reveals hope at the end of sonnet 65. He says that “in black ink my love may still shine bright” to give the idea that through literature everything that is beautiful can be depicted. The descriptions made in literature of the most wonderful elements and feelings in life can give a perspective to future generations of everything that is beautiful in life now even if at the end it is destroyed by human beings.

By Noelia Zamora

The Comedy of Errors (Renaissance)

The Shakespearean play the Comedy of Errors depicts a naïve society in which people need to look for unconventional explanations to every single event. Shakespeare criticizes this society by depicting a situation that is unlikely to take place in reality. Four individuals were involved in what can be considered a hilarious event. These individuals happen to be two slaves with their masters, but the two masters are named Antipholus and the slaves are named Dromio. These men are involved in a misunderstanding caused by their immature attitude, which represents English society. The misunderstanding also reveals troublesome relationships among masters and slaves, husbands and wives, and the general situation of this society. Shakespeare clearly uses the characters of the play to reveal their incapability of reasoning and dealing with simple aspects of life. The first scene, Aegeon’s execution, shows the only moment of real tragedy in the play. As the misunderstanding takes place, the title of play starts making sense since it is the constant errors of the characters what causes negative implications for themselves. A relevant issue in the play is also the lack of identity. The confusion makes the four main characters of the play feel frustrated, alienated and even aggressive because they have not a clear identity and, therefore, no influence or authority. Even the ending of the play seems to reinforce Shakespeare’s criticism but in a subtle way. When both Dromios find each other, they decide to act as equals in friendly manner. This ending portrays Shakespeare’s purpose of trying to make people think rationally and act as a civilized and close society.

By Erick Pérez

When I Was Fair and Young (Renaissance)

Indifference and Pride in Queen Elizabeth’s When I Was Fair and Young

Queen Elizabeth mocks men through sarcastic and ironic phrases. She points out her position of power in her society by saying that she has always taken advantage of men. She enjoys the pleasures of life without ever thinking about feelings. She feels proud of her behaviors at all time. The speaker uses certain ironic expressions such as “How many weeping eyes I made to pine with woe, / How many sighing hearts, I have no skill to show” to give the sense that she regrets what she did. However, she does not actually repent about her actions. In fact, she is proud of all those situations. She mocks men by narrating these stories as if those were a reason to be proud. She takes advantage of not only her social position but also of her beauty. She describes herself as an extremely beautiful woman when she says: “When I was fair and young, and favor graced me.” She writes this poem to say that she has always done what she wants and that she has known how to place herself in the best position of all. Moreover, Anger grows on her when love tries to get into her life. She does not love someone because she prefers to be free to do what she wants without restrictions or moral impositions. She explains that “When he [Cupid] had spake these words, such/ change grew in my breast,/ That neither night nor day since that, I/ could take any rest.” She feels anger and disgust towards Cupid trying to change her life and make her think about other people’s feelings. She prefers to remain indifferent to what other people think or feel. The speaker has always been a proud woman and she does not want to change; she does not want to love someone or get attached to a person. She does not want any boundary or limit in her life. It will always be her will and her desires in spite of other people’s opinions.

By Noelia Zamora

Le Morte Darthur (Medieval Period)

Romantic texts deal with the human need of having King Arthur as an imaginary hero. The outstanding King Arthur emerged as the mighty man capable of defeating his enemies, an evident reference to the need of revenge against the Anglo-Saxons. This romantic text first shows the pride and respect of al the people In Camelot towards their savior. King Arthur, however, has a dream that can be considered a revelation of what is going to happen to him and his kingdom. Arthur is now an average human being who can be afraid and who may need help because he is not as brave as he is supposed to be. Although Gawain had died, he “came back” to warn King Arthur about Sir Mordred’s intentions. Despite of the “admiration and respect” towards King Arthur, ambition rots Camelot and threatens King Arthur’s position, which is no longer respected. Arthur is not really an upright man because he has an illegitimate son, Mordred, who is willing to kill his father and destroy this authority and almighty figure of Camelot. The kingdom was supposed to be a paradise, but nobody trusted each other. The truce agreed by Arthur and Mordred did not work and a tremendous battle started. The battle stands for the main relevant aspect of this romantic text not only because of Arthur’s death, but also because of Bedivere’s ambition. The legendary and meaningful sword Excalibur symbolizes the power of Arthur and everyone, including Bedivere, would desire to posses it. Bedivere betrays Arthur and this action reveals how this “loyal” knight stands for those who do enjoy serving somebody, even if he is his savior, and as soon as he had the chance he tried to keep Excalibur and become the new King Arthur.

By Erick Pérez

Barbara Allan (Medieval Period)

Ballads are characterized for having a song-melody, and they usually repeat words or phrases which in some cases could become a song. This is the case of Barbara Allen, which is a ballad from the Medieval Ages that currently has many versions that are sung. This poem for an unknown tells the story of two lovers that die for the love. The first stanza shows the time they met; however, the speaker says “the green leaves were a-fallin’,” which can be interpreted as decay—decay of true love—because people no longer believe in finding the person to share the rest of their life with. The poem continues telling us that Sir John has sent a man to bring Barbara to his death-bed. Nevertheless, on the third stanza the speaker mentions “O slowy , slowly rase she up” which means that she does not want to see him, which foreshadows that something not agreeable has happened between them. In fact, on the fifth stanza she tells him that once he has “slighted” her and this is the reason why she treats him so could when she says “Young man, I think you’re dying.”

Moreover, this poem deals with the idea of guilty because both of the lovers blame the other for the painful situation they are at. Indeed, on the sixth stanza as Sir John is almost dying, he says to his friends to be merciful with Barbara, even though she is guilty of his fate. Similarly happens to her when she says to her mother to built her grave; Barbara is blaming Sir John of her misfortune because now that her beloved one has died, she must died too. Nevertheless, the idea of guilty not only present in the sense of blaming someone else for oneself fate, but also in the sense of finding oneself guilty of the misfortune of other person. As example of this idea, on the eighth, the speaker says “every jow that the dead-bell ga’ed/It cried; ‘Woe to Barbara Allen’” which means that maybe she feels that she might have prevented the dead of Sir John. Every sound of the bells remember her the love that was between them.

Furthermore, it is important to point out that the love theme depicted on this ballad was not common during the Middle Ages since on those times literature procures to denounce social problems as it happens on the Canterbury Tales by Chaucer.

The following are two versions of the poem used as songs.

Was in the merry month of May
When green buds all were swelling,
Sweet William on his death bed lay
For love of Barbara Allen.

He sent his servant to the town
To the place where she was dwelling,
Said you must come, to my master dear
If your name be Barbara Allen.

So slowly, slowly she got up
And slowly she drew nigh him,
And the only words to him did say
Young man I think you're dying.

He turned his face unto the wall
When we were in the tavern,
Good-bye, good-bye, to my friends all
Be good to Barbara Allen.

When he was dead and laid in grave
She heard the death bells melling
And every stroke to her did say
Hard hearted Barbara Allen.

Oh mother, oh mother go dig my grave
Make it both long and narrow,
Sweet William died of love for me
And I will die of sorrow.

And father, oh father, go dig my grave
Make it both long and narrow,
Sweet William died on yesterday
And I will die tomorrow.

Barbara Allen was buried in the old churchyard
Sweet William was buried beside her,
Out of sweet William's heart, there grew a rose
From Barbara's a green briar.

They grew and grew in the old churchyard
Till they could grow no higher
At the end they formed, a true lover's knot
And the rose grew round the briar.

Sung by Joan Baez



All in the merry month of May
When green buds all were swelling,
Sweet William on his death bed lay
For love of Barbara Allen.

He sent his servant to the town
A place where she did dwell in,
Said master dear, has sent me here
If your name be Barbara Allen.

Then slowly, slowly she got up
And slowly she went to him,
And all she said, when there she came
Young man I think you're dying.

Don't you remember the other night
And death was in him welling,
You drank a toast to the ladies there
And slighted Barbara Allen.

He turned his face unto the wall
He turned his back upon her,
Adieu, adieu, to all my friends
And be kind, be kind, to Barbara Allen.

As she was wandering by the fields
She heard the death bells melling
And every note did seem to say
Hard hearted Barbara Allen.

The more it tolled the more she grieved
She bursted out a crying,
Oh pick me up and carry me home
I feel that I am dying.


They buried Willy in the old churchyard
And Barbara in the new one,
And from Willy's grave, there grew a rose
Out of Barbara Allen's a briar.

They grew and grew in the old churchyard
Till they could grow no higher
And there they tied in a true lover's knot
The red rose and the briar.

Sung by Garfunkel

By Pamela Regidor

Credits:

http://www.etni.org.il/music/barbaraallen.htm

Edward (Medieval Period)

Edward is a poem that deals with lack of values, the concept of family relationships, and how people tend to blame others when they have made a mistake. In fact, the first three stanzas illustrate the lack of values since Edward lies to his mother when she asks him whose blood is the one in his sword. He is not able to be honest because he knows that he has done something wrong, he has killed his father. This issue exemplifies that the need of values exists since remote epochs, so this poem could also be applied to societies of our times since, nowadays, people lie in order to hide their mistakes, and as a consequence they do not have to be responsible of their actions.

Furthermore, the relationships depicted in the poem are the ones of members of a family that do not care about each other. For instance, when the mother asks Edward what is going to happen to his family when he has gone, he says that he does not worry about them, that they will become beggars. Therefore, he does not care if he has to abandon them in order to be free, so he is saying that individuality prevails over everything else. Similarly to the sense of individuality depicted on the poem, currently people worry only about themselves and do not consider if others need help. Indeed, people tend to reach their goals no matter if they have to destroy others’ aspirations. It is the same as saying that the end justified the means because people only think in getting their desires without thinking if they cause damage to someone else.

At the end, the mother asks him what he will leave to her, and he answers that nothing because she is guilty of all his misfortune because she has given him the worst pieces of advice, maybe it was she who tells him to marry and have a family and that is the reason why he does not care about it because he does not want to have a family. He is only following directions. Therefore, the last stanza clearly exemplifies that people tend to blame other of their calamities since many of them are not able to assume the consequences of their acts. The same happens in our society. For instance, when someone makes a mistake that will cost millions to his/her company, he/she will look for excuses that justifies him/her, or maybe that person will try to blame someone else. This poem clearly exemplifies today’s society since it mirrors people who look for individualism, but when it comes to find the guilty person, everyone will avoid his/her responsibility.

By Pamela Regidor

Sir Patrick Spence (Medieval Period)

In every society it is questioned the value of obedience and power; in fact, many people consider that the ones that have the power take advantage of their position, and says that the “weak” have the obligation to obey them. As consequence of this social construction of the way how people should behave according to their status, some people have had problems to decide what the acceptable behavior is and what is not, which make them doubt about their faith on their values. Indeed, Sir Patrick Spence clearly shows the problems with the concepts of obedience and power.

In fact, the first stanza depicts how people who have the power are at the comfort of their places. For instance, the king sits drinking wine and his only preoccupation is to find a sailor who will navigate in order to bring his daughter to the palace. Besides, he does not worry about the time of year, which is not appropriate to go on a voyage because he is not the one who will put his life in danger. Therefore, this image portrays people in power take advantage of their positions because this king will find someone who will do the “dirty,” difficult job, and he would be safe at his palace waiting for his daughter. Moreover, the second stanza emphasizes this notion of authority because a knight immediately answers to the king’s request, so this action affirms that the person who has the power will obtain whatever he wants in an easy way.

Moreover, the fourth stanza exemplifies that the relationship between the one that has the power and the one that has to obey is impersonal. Nevertheless, this stanza also depicts the idea that people under the power of others feel important when they receive recognition from their superiors. However, in this case, although at the beginning Sir Patrick feels happy because he realizes that the king knows about him, he also feels miserable because he questions what wrong has he done in order to obtain such a task, which will lead him to his dead. In fact, one of his men mentions an omen when he says that “Late late yestre’en I saw the new moon/Wi’ the auld moon in her arm,/And I fear, I fear my dear master,/That we will come to harm,” so this exemplifies that they are aware that although the weather conditions are not the appropriate to travel, they should follow the directions of their king because it is the way they should behave according to social rules.

Even though the issues depicted in the poem take place during the Middle Ages, they are present in our times. Indeed, we can see in our country how people in the government take advantage of their position as happens with the magistrates who want extra money only because they work for the country, but this is fallacy because every person in this country helps to built the nation not only those who work in governmental positions. Additionally, the notion that people are obedient is due to the fact that they are afraid of being fired, and not because they think that what they are told to do is the right action. Indeed, this kind of people are not obedient, they are submissive because they do not denounce what is abusive.

By Pamela Regidor

Get Up and Bar the Door (Medieval Period)

This ballad presents more than a very bizarre situation; it shows a great variety of themes that are deeper in meaning such as the competition between men and women, husband and wife and the battle of wills. When there is a relationship between two people of different genres, in most cases if not in all the cases, there is going to be a sense of competition. The man is going to try to defend his position in the relationship, to try of maintain his power; however, women like the one in this ballad are going to refuse and question that authority since they do not want to be treated like a carpet.

It is well known that the best person to marry with, it would be oneself. At the moment a person coexists with another one, it is for sure that there is going to be troubles, fights and discussions since not everybody has the same thoughts and feelings. The wills of one might not be the ones of the other person, and those differences are the key factor of the marriage’s struggles. And it is until one of them do what the other wants that the battle finishes. That is what happens in this ballad, neither of them wanted to bar the door and even they were exposed to certain dangers only because of proud.

By Alexia Brokke

The Canterbury Tales (Medieval Period)

The Knight
Although the Knight was taken as a religious hero and from the highest class; although he could take advantage of the privileges that a man like him could enjoy; none of those aspects seems to be enough for him. He seems to have an aversion to conflict or unhappiness of any kind; which is predictable through the way he wears: “he was not gaily dressed. He wore a fustian tunic stained and dark with smudges where his armour had left mark.” Even the fact that part of his clothing was dark can reflect how he felt inside, with anger, or just sad.

The Squire
Even though this character rest importance to his role as a candidate to become a knight, he seems to be lifeless. All that matters to him is to enjoy of the pleasures of flesh, to sing, write and read poems in order to capture the love of the ladies; in other words he is a ladies’ man. However, this kind of life that he is living is nonsense; he does not have any purpose for his live; it is meaningless. Therefore, as a stone or as a statue that do not have life; people can assume that his life is empty; he does not have one.

The Yeoman
The yeoman appears to be the same as Robin Hood; he wears the same and with the same colors. Nevertheless, the fact that he wore a Saint Christopher’s medal is that he travels and is not in only one place as happens with our dear thief.

The Prioress
This woman was characterized as a person who is not humble; in fact, she allegedly speaks French (England French), and wears jewelry. Nevertheless, she is a charitable person and tender hearted with pets at least: “she saw a mouse caught in a tramp, if it were dead or bleeding and she had little dogs she would be feeding with roasted flesh, or milk, or fine white bread. And bitterly she wept if one were dead.” Hence, she seems to have feelings and to be friendly too.

The Monk
Although this monk is a hunter and a person who does not respect the rules, he has leadership skills since he dictates his life by ignoring the monastery’s rules. In addition to that, he seems to be the only person who is honest with himself; he does not have the necessity to look like someone he is not. Even the host says about him: “This monk was therefore a good man to horse; greyhounds he had, as swift as birds, to course hunting a hare or riding at a fence was all his fun.” He does not have to hide his personality and his likes to anyone; this makes him an authentic person.

The Friar
Although this character has many weaknesses such as the way he makes couples and the way he manipulates the entire environment near that situation, he denotes through the ballad that he is a virtuous person; he posses humility and courtesy. Therefore he is so likeable among the citizens.

The Merchant
This character gives the impression of being wealthy: “Upon his head a Flemish beaver hat and on his feet daintily buckled boots.” However, the merchant has a secret: he is really in debt. He is a boastful person, who likes to be well treated despite fool people.

The Lawyer
He is a very educated person and knows almost everything. Nonetheless, he has the tendency of humans to pretend; he pretends to be busier than he really is. At the same time, he has misconstructions about his importance and holds a very high opinion about himself: “not one conveyance could be called in question: though there was nowhere ones so busy as he, he was less busy than he seemed to be.”

The Franklin
Even though he has a strong appearance and enjoys of pleasures such as food and sex, he has other good qualities. He is a social person with great values. At the same time that he shows a lot of hospitability since his table is always laid with food and was joined by people.

The Five Tradesmen
Those characters seem to have a very prosperous lifestyle; even their wives look wealthy. At the same time, both husbands and wives seem to be pretentious: “to be called “Madam” is a glorious thought. And so is going to church and being seen having your mantle carried like a queen.” Those people lack of humbleness.

The Cook
This character seems to be not as intelligent as the other characters; his life is based only among food, aromas and recipes. In fact, he is not educated and seems to belong to the lower economical class; the working class.

The Ship’s Captain
Like most drunks, he was an excellent fellow when he was under the influence of alcohol. However, he is the kind of captain who believes that he is a pirate. In a sense, he is lifeless; he does not have a purpose for his life. He has experience since he has traveled a lot but it does not matter to him.

The Doctor
Although he is good at his profession and heals a lot of people, there is a doubt related with his spiritual health. He really cares and is very conscious of his physical health and eats moderately. However, he we are Christians we can say that the ability that this man presents God gives it to him. Nevertheless, he does not read the Bible quite often.

The Wife of Bath
It is true that this woman is promiscuous and was married to five men. However, she has a lot of experience since she has traveled all over the world on pilgrimages. At the same time, she is intelligent rather than intellectual. This fact is proved because she has learned how to provide for herself in a world where women had no independence or power, and she has both. Likewise, she shows no fear in a world ruled by men for men.

The Parson
He is learned but unlike the other characters, posses much more virtue; he is what a true Christian priest has to be. At the same time, the parson is poor; nevertheless, that is not an impediment for him to be rich in holy thoughts and works.

The Plowman
This is another character who is an ideal of a Christian man despite he is a small tenant farmer. Like the character mention before he tries to maintains good values and qualities. At the time that tries to keep up with his responsibilities; for example, he paid his tithes to the church. He is honest with his neighbors and is hard working.

The Miller
He is a hateful character and seems to be powerful; he takes advantage of that situation and intimidates other people. Likewise, he is corrupt, rude, shameless, selfish and easily anger. Nevertheless, he can be viewed as a realistic person because of his personality.

The Manciple
Despite he is unlettered; he has other qualities that makes him unreliable like dishonest, always makes a profit on his purchases. Ironically, Chaucer praises his financial wisdom that enables him to deceive his masters.

The Reeve
This character uses his capabilities to cheat people in business. In addition, he has bad temper; he is suspicious. Also, he does not trust on the others because the way he is and treat the others: “No one had ever caught him in arrears. No bailiff, serf or herdsman dared to kick, he knew their dodges, knew their every trick.”

The Summoner
This person is a little bit controversial since in one hand he seems to be a good fellow; on the other hand, he is an immoral character; he is often paid off by sinners. Even little children were afraid when he appeared.

The Pardoner
This is the most marginalized character. As the pardoner he has to offer indulgences. Nonetheless, he is a highly untrustworthy character because of his hipocresy. Moreover, there is a paradigm with him; it seems that the Pardoner is effeminate, homosexual or an eunuch.

Harry Bailly, the Host
As the owner of the inn where the pilgrims stay, he knows almost everything about everyone there. He has the ability of keep the order during the development of the stories, has leadership skills.

By Alexia Brokke

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (Medieval Period)

To Be or Not To Be Afraid of Magic

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is an Anti-Romance poem in which the main character undergoes a “heroic” quest but to safe himself; however, little has been said about the role of Magic in this poem. Magic, during the Medieval period, was seen as a dark and mysterious practice that people related to evilness. This was mainly because people who practiced it had a set of beliefs that differed and opposed the “Christian” behaviors of the majority, and, therefore, intimidated them. For instance, the fear people had towards Magic was manifested in different characters from the poem. One example is the reaction people had in King Arthur’s court when Gawain cut off the head of the Green Knight; the latter began to speak with his head chopped off from his body which caused panic and fear on the crowd. Similarly, the main character, Gawain, rejected and was scared of his “quest” mostly because he feared the evil entity he had to face; Gawain believed that the Green Knight was a supernatural and Magical creature that was superior to him. In other words, people feared Magic and the ones who practiced it because they were presumed to be evil and to have supernatural powers that could harm them.

In spite of the fear people had, Magic, in this poem, played an inverted role because people who practiced it actually intended to teach and correct others. To begin with, Magic opposed the “Christian” behaviors of the poem's characters because people who practice this religion were portrayed as permissive and prone to excesses. At the beginning of the poem, there is a Christmas celebration in which people were abusing from drinking, eating, and lustfulness; needless to say that these are not proper Christian behaviors. In addition, the major representatives of this religion in the poem, priests, did not behave properly; at Bertilak's castle these characters stood up all night drinking with all the guests and the next day they gave mass and confess people. Clearly, there is a contradiction between the Christian beliefs and the way in which people actually behaved. On the other hand, the representatives of Magic are portrayed as wise characters; an example is Morgana LeFay. This character is the one who was in charge of all the plan of sending the Green Knight in order to teach a lesson not only to Gawain, but to all the other knights and people at King Arthur’s court. Her purpose was to reinforce the values of this society and to provide a lesson of morality; in other words, she functions not as an entity of evil, but as an entity of goodness.

Briefly, the concept of Magic is redefined in this poem because it is not portrayed as a negative practice. It is truth that at first glance the Green Knight and Morgana appear to be enemies of King Arthur and his knights; nonetheless, these Magical characters have only one purpose in this poem: to amend the lost values of this society. Thus, in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Magic is not a source of malevolence; it is instead the means through which characters correct their misbehaviors.

By Juan Manuel Rodríguez

Image Credit:

https://web.gsc.edu/fs/sprestridge/greenknight.jpg

Riddles (Anglo-Saxon Period)

Riddles are extended kennings. A kenning is one of many literary devises employed by Anglo-Saxons. A kenning is a metaphor, in other words, a construction to give a name, in which one of the elements is not stated. This is clearly presented in many AS texts, for instance, Beowulf is also called “the Weather-Great prince”. Different kennings for the wanderer are the “wayfarer” and the “world-strider”. In The Ruins, the Romans are referred as the “Giants”. Anglo-Saxon riddles focused on everyday’s life experiences. The depiction of simple objects was taken to a poetic level. In addition, these objects were given human attributes. Notice how in Riddles 5, 16, 21, 47, 68 and 80, the personal pronounce of the first person singular “I” is employed as if the object acquired a life on its own. Thus, it is the object that describes itself by using human qualities. For example, in Riddle 5, the shield is described as “wounded”, “weary with fighting”, “sick of battle-work” and “doomed to bear the brunt”. All the clues to decode a riddle are given within it. The reader just has to pay attention to the signs.

By Cinthya Cervantes

The Dream of The Rood (Anglo-Saxon Period)

My Religion is…Imposed?!

The Dream of the Rood is an Anglo-Saxon poem that deals with the issue of converting people to Christianity by using Anglo-Saxon values and traditions to appeal to them; however, all these ideals were actually used to mask the Catholic Church imposition over others. The Catholic Church began converting people to Christianity after the fall of the Roman Empire; they sent preachers to Anglo-Saxons kings in order to spread Christian beliefs. In this poem, even though certain characteristics do coincide with the purpose of appealing Anglo-Saxons, the Church also makes use of those characteristics but to impose values and to make clear its status of superiority.

To begin with, Christian values were imposed through threatening menaces. Throughout the poem, there are constant references to the evil that men do and the consequences they may have due to their actions. For instance, the speaker described himself as a sinner in order to emphasize this idea that men, in this case the Anglo-Saxons, needed to be corrected and purified (this sounds like imposition). Moreover, when the rood was addressing the speaker, it menaced the human race with the final judgment; in other words, if they did not accept the Church ideals, easy, the Church would menace them with this idea of a judgment in which God himself would come down to punish each one of them directly. That is to say, if people did not change or became Christians, they would not be saved and enjoy the life after death this religion offered; as the same speaker says to himself: “And I wait each day / For when the cross of God … may fetch me from / This transitory life and carry me / To where there is great bliss and joy in heaven.” Briefly, the Church was giving a clear message: unless people convert, they would be doomed and would not enjoy the “benefits” of being Christians. However, this triggers another question, did Anglo-Saxons at the end became Christians because they believed in all those new ideas or because of convenience?

In addition, in this poem it is clear the abuse of power from the Church. As previously mentioned, people were intimidated by the Church’s menaces. However, those menaces came along with allusions to the power the Church had. For instance, Jesus is constantly referred to as a warrior; an enemy that if people did not become allies with, would punish them. Besides, the rood makes allusion to the power it has, but does not dare to use because that is God's will: “I durst not against God's word … Although I might / Have struck down all the foes, yet stood I fast.” Succinctly, the Church clearly states that they have a great amount of power that can be used at any time against people who oppose them…but clearly, who would oppose an institution that among their warriors has a rood who has so much power that God himself does not allow it to use? As mentioned, Anglo-Saxons were warriors, of course they would not fight someone or something they were aware was superior to them…again, imposition, abuse of power?

Finally, related to this idea of power is the fact that in the poem there is a clear reference to the Church’s interest in wealth, which corresponds to what is later seen during the Middle Ages. Throughout the poem there are several allusions to wealth and material valuable objects: Gold, metals, jewels, treasures, tokens, etc. These valuable objects were property of the Church, and even though they might have been appealing to Anglo-Saxons because they were also interested in these types of objects, those same objects were used as a means of control and to manifest the superiority this institution had (during the Middle Ages, the Church began to have a lot of economic power because they traded “salvation” for wealth). In other words, the same threatening ideas that appear in this poem are the ones that later on the Church used in order to manipulate and control people and to increase their economic power.

In brief, this poem can not only be interpreted as a didactic construction to convert people to Christianity; it can also bee seen as a poem that foreshadows the abuses that would appear in further periods of history, and that caused the separation of people from the Church and the increase of the demoralization of the English society due to all the abuses that were eventually denounced.

By Juan Manuel Rodríguez

Image Credit:

https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhA6W7uhZvarJEv8_4gYCV_Xl2rx-uvOEelvT6fU8SPF1x42s95axlQCC5zIFNwahHoezE-aS2cdkmaAdVm-EcYqo6T_7ZzkKM4bAI01fl1dGVrIS-_cPF-w1uXQs02Yri6ObPXh4X22w-U/s660/romancenturion_lg.jpg

The Battle of Maldon (Anglo-Saxon Period)

When it comes to defend their interests, some peoples can be very sensitive. Of course each people must defend its security and interests along with its land and resources; however, it is important to be rational and think about the consequences of extreme defense. One thing is being brave and another is being selfish, such case is depicted in the Anglo-Saxon poem The Battle of Maldon.

In this poem the Englishmen were so (yes… an intensifier here!) brave that they decided to fight the Vikings in spite of their rude manners and superiority in battle. It is fine to defend the land from invasion or any kind of harm but when the whole kingdom is at risk of perishing it is better to look for alternative solutions. In this case the Englishmen were so ambitious that they neglected negotiations with the Vikings who were after money (not land or people), and decided to fight instead of obtaining a reasonable solution and just give them what they wanted in exchange of freedom and security. Of course, the battle was too much for the brave English army and most of them, included the King, died... Whatever happened later is not specified in the text but what happened during the battle is explicitly mentioned in the poem: the Englishmen, the brave army, feared! They cowered and ran away from the battlefield; the weakest left and the rest died in chaos and sorrow for their army had failed and their King was death… They lost the battle along with their pride.

What is more interesting besides the brave Englishmen’s decision is the diplomacy of the Vikings. Even though these people were courageous warriors and conquered many lands by force, they would first analyze each society and rescued what they thought was useful or acceptable. The Vikings would first use dialogue and then, if things did not turn as they expected, they would use the force. Usually, the Vikings are portrayed as rude barbarians who had thirst for blood and ambition. However, this stereotype is not that accurate because they would not try to conquer each piece of land they touched, sometimes they would just pass over or take some things, like the case in The Battle of Maldon.

The Battle of Maldon can be illustrated with the story of David and Goliath, David being the Englishmen and Goliath being the Vikings. So, Goliath comes and threatens David. David decides to fight back. The conflict starts, and eventually ends. The difference in this case is that the weakest contender did not win the battle and that the giant was not picking a fight in the first place. David was a kingdom with an independency complex who did not want to be tricked by a bigger force; he was brave though because confronting someone bigger than you requires guts. And Goliath had experience and determination; he knew what he was up to. At the end, David fell into his own trap and could not handle the pressure… failed.

Perhaps, The Battle of Maldon provides several lessons: first, be wise when dealing with situations that might seem risky; analyze all the possibilities and consider their consequences. Second, do not underestimate your opponent, and do not overrate your capacities. And third, you cannot always play the hero, sometimes you have to surrender.

By Melissa López

Image credit:

http://www.fitzsoc.com/Fitzpatrick%20Clan%20Society/battle/battle_clontarf.jpg

Summer Is Gone (Anglo-Saxon Period)

Many often people question their productivity as persons of an active society and relate it to age. Furthermore, they also query if their age is an impediment to achieve a goal. This questioning of the importance of age is represented in the Irish poem Summer Is Gone, which also depicts one of the main Celtic values, admiration for nature.

This poem is rich in the use of images that clearly depict the admiration for nature. It is important to point out that the speaker of this poem is very aware of it. He is someone who pays attention to details. In fact, because he observes the environment and all its cycles, he is able to explain the process of aging using images of natural elements.

Moreover, the speaker is announcing the truth about old age of a person who is unaware of this issue. For instance, when the speaker says, “My tidings for you: the stag bells/Winter snows, summer is gone,” he is narrating his own story; he is telling to other person to wake up, to look at the years he has wasted, and not to make the same mistakes. Furthermore, the speaker recognizes that he is no longer a young man, but a mature one who has not made good use of his life. Additionally, the speaker shows that physical appearance changes and deteriorates; however, he does not make reference to beauty, but to the idea that the older you are, the more difficult it is to perform in a field in order to achieve your goals. In fact, on the third stanza, the speaker acknowledges that he has wasted his life, “The wild-goose has raised his wonted cry”; hence this cry shows sorrow because the person realizes that the “golden” age of youth has gone and that there is no possibility to go back to change it.

Finally, the last stanza reinforces the ideas mentioned above. Indeed, when the speaker says that “Cold has caught the wings of birds;/Season of ice—these are my tidings,” he admits that the aging process brought a person to a time in which age will “cut” the wings of freedom because there will be a moment in which old people will become dependable, so the speaker is not happy of seeing that now he does not have the same opportunities as in early life, and that he has to accept that he is an old person that will depend on others. Therefore, the speaker expresses that there is not more time to show his productivity, thus he feels repentant of knowing that he has misuse his life.

By Pamela Regidor

Pangur Ban (Anglo-Saxon Period)

Although Pangur Ban is an Anglo-Saxon poem, it does not reflect any Anglo-Saxon tradition; on the contrary, it mirrors Irish tradition. In fact, it shows Celtic values. Even though, this poem seems to be a simple comparison between the activities of a cat with the ones of its master, it not only proposes the idea of equilibrium between human beings and nature, but also suggests that writer’s inspiration comes by chance.

First of all, on the second stanza, the speaker shows one of the values of the Celtics, respect for nature. When he says “Pangur bears me no ill will/He too plies his simple skill”, he is demonstrating that nature and human beings can live in complete harmony if they respect each other. The speaker expresses that since the cat has not unfriendly feelings to his owner, the later should accept the activities of the other. This is a matter of tolerance, which is reinforced on the third stanza when the speaker says that they share the same space, and enjoy themselves doing what they like to. Moreover, this sense of respect and tolerance can be also applied to human relationships because the bond depicted in the poem is telling us that the incorporation of those values in people’s life will improve everyone’s productivity.

Besides the incorporations of values in every person’s life, the poem is telling us that writers get their inspiration by chance. In fact, on the fourth stanza, the speaker emphasizes this thought when he says, “Oftentimes a mouse will stray/In the hero Pangur’s way;” in this case the speaker is sarcastic because he labels the cat as a hero although is the mouse the one that makes a mistake for taking a route that will put him in danger. The same happens to the writer when he says, “Oftentimes my keen thought set /Takes a meaning in its net.” In this case, the speaker states that he has to spend hours trying to write about a specific issue, but his ideas will come by chance, and not because he has the knowledge about a specific concept. The notion that a writer has to spend a lot of time in the writing task in order to get what he wants to write about is exemplified in the first stanza when he says “Hunting words I still all night.” Moreover, this is closely related to the last two lines of the poem, “I get wisdom day and night/Turning darkness into light”, meaning that the process of writing is a tough task that requires lots of time; this task will even take since night until morning as is depicted in the last line of the poem.

Besides the fact that the poem describes the way in which the cat preys a mouse, and the way the writer obtains his ideas almost as accidental deeds, it also shows that the writer takes as an example the cat because of the patience depicted by the animal while he waits until a mouse takes the wrong route and becomes an easy object to prey. This is a way to say to the writer that he should be patient because at any moment he will obtain what he is looking for. This notion of taking the cat as an example is also a method to demonstrate that the more a person does something, the more he becomes an expert; it is as the old saying goes “practice makes the master.”

By Pamela Regidor

The Seafarer (Anglo-Saxon Period)

The speaker of The Seafarer tells how the life of a sailor is. Through his experience, he shows that sailors feel hopeless and helpless while they are on their voyages, and that this incidents and feelings make them think about the importance of life and of God. Therefore, this poem demonstrates how people get closer to God due to tough experiences.

This poem is divided into two parts, the first one depicts the past of the speaker and the second one is about the present. In the first part, the speaker narrates his life during the times of his voyages, and how wretched he felt because of the danger he had to face on the sea; for instance, he mentions the extreme weather conditions like snow and risky seas in which he has traveled. He also mentions that he suffered from hunger and desolation; he felt lonely on the sea because he misses the comfort of the life on ground. This hard experience on the sea, the fear, and the sense of being hopeless and helpless made him think that he could die at any moment. However, he also considers that he is alive because God gave him a new opportunity to appreciate what is really important. Furthermore, he expresses that a person that has not passed through these difficulties is unable to really comprehend his misfortune, and this is the same reason why some people do not care about God. In fact, when the speaker says “But there isn’t a man…so graced by God/That he feels no fear as the sails unfurl,” he is telling that although people live with all the comfort that they could get, they do not think that all what they have is because they are graced by God, and it is only through experiences in which a person feels he/she is going to die that they remember that they believe in God.

Moreover, the second part of the poem reinforces this idea of getting closer to God because when the speaker is on shore, he acknowledges that anything is important if people do not believe in God, thus he tries to preach others about his matter. He tells them that the emptiness they feel, and which they are trying to fill through material and pagan pleasures is not the best way to feel good; instead, he advises them that “…The wealth/of the world neither reaches to Heaven nor remains,” so he explains that materialism does not have any reward, and it only leads to destruction as he exemplifies when he says “…Fate’s three threats/Would fall: illness, or age, or enemy’s/Sword”. Hence, he implies that people must fear God in order to reach Heaven. This concept is reinforced when he states that “…nothing/Golden shakes the wrath of God/for a soul overflowing with sin, and nothing/Hidden on earth rises to Heaven;” therefore, he affirms that a materialistic life will not please God and will not become a means of salvation because God will judge us according to our actions. In addition, the speaker ends the poem giving advice to other people when he tells them to act according to the law of God if they really want to reach Heaven.

Finally, the fact that the speaker recalls his memories as a sailor is a way to tell people that they should not wait until something really dreadful happens to remember that God is the one that will give them eternal life. In fact, this theme is recurrent on literature of the Anglo-Saxon period because of the presence of the Catholic Church and its purpose of converting people into Christianity.

By Pamela Regidor

Beowulf (Anglo-Saxon Period)

The Modern Beowulf

Much has been said about Beowulf, the famous epic poem with the brave hero who saves the land from its enemies. Most approaches on this text focus on the main character’s nobility and courage; in addition, most critics emphasize the relationship between King and warriors or comitatus. However, the aspect of nationalism is often undermined when analyzing Beowulf as a text, especially during the first part of the poem.

The character Beowulf was a Geatish warrior, so what was he doing in Danish lands? Why was he so interested in saving a land that was not his own?

First, Hrothgar the Danish King comfortably decides to accept Beowulf’s help in exchange of wealth and prestige. Apparently there were no heroes in Denmark, or at least they would not dare to start a battle against their enemy. Of course, the King had no better choice than Beowulf if he wanted to protect his land… a land he could not defend on his own; besides, Beowulf’s curriculum was quite impressive. It was easy for Hrothgar: if the noble foreign warrior died in battle, no one would complain, he died trying to defeat the terrible Grendel, but if Beowulf won and killed the monster he would be praised, would be considered a wise King for accepting such a valuable help. So, what is the role of the King, the all-mighty authority of a kingdom? Apparently, in Hrothgar’s case, the King is the one who provides and helps his people… without moving one finger. So, it seems that the tradition of lazy leaders who need others to do the dirty jobs for them comes from ancient times and different cultures.

Going back to Beowulf, who would want to risk his own life just to save a foreign country? Nowadays it seems foolish to do such a thing. However, in Beowulf’s time one of the main values of mankind was courage and respect… something our society lacks. Beowulf did what no one would do: he rescued a country from catastrophe without claiming greater benefits than prestige and kinsmanship. At the present time we have different versions of Beowulf: countries that offer their “help” to the weakest (although sometimes they just help without being invited to). Nevertheless, unlike the noble warrior, they ask (or demand) certain benefits like lands, natural resources, money, and power in exchange of their help. So this modern Beowulfs believe themselves the Good Samaritan and brag about their good intentions and how they solve everybody’s problems, while the rest know they are but wolves inside sheep’s skin. The modern Beowulfs have the courage to aid others, but not the respect the others deserve.

Unlike Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and society, today’s countries cannot afford to accept whoever offers help. The values have changed, and when there are interests at stake they must be careful. As mentioned before, Beowulf’s society was ruled by loyalty, respect, courage, and honor... Those principles referred to people and the place they belonged to. In Beowulf’s case, he helped the Danish for his own glory and benefit; however, when his time came to be a King, he died protecting his land in battle. The Anglo-Saxons believed and respected their code of honor. Maybe, what today’s leaders need is to consider if they love their people and their land as much as to die protecting them, to defend them, and to take good care of them. In addition, they must learn to respect differences and boundaries in order to fulfill their mission as they should: honorably.

By Melissa López

Image credit:
http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/150Tetrapoda/Images/Beowulf.jpg

The Ruin (Anglo-Saxon Period)

The Ruin is a very changeling text because parts of some its lines are missing. The title sets the mood of the poem. The ruins transmit the sense of sadness surrounding the persona. The imagery in the text is descriptive, and it serves to reveal the idea of destruction and isolation.
It is important to highlight that the AS territories were previously the Roman’s domain. In addition, Romans mastered the forging of metals and the use of stone in architecture, while the AS people were quiet primitive in that regard. Thus, the poet alludes to the Roman’s constructions which have been destroyed along with their people. Another key element in the analysis of The Ruins is the pagan belief in fate. In two occasions, the poem refers to Roman’s ill fate. The first explicit allusion to fate is portrayed in line 1 as it is stated: “Well-wrought this wall: Weird broke it”. The Romans built that wall, and Fate destroyed it. Likewise, the second reference to Fate describes how the Romans’ happiness and prosperity was ruined for “Weird changed that” (24).These two quotes manifest the AS ‘strong beliefs in fate. According to the poem, Romans were to doom to fall. It was destiny.

By Cinthya Cervantes

The Wife’s Lament (Anglo-Saxon Period)

The Wife’s Lament seems at first glance to be a text that portrays entirely the Anglo-Saxon’s traditions; nevertheless, there are some inconsistencies with their philosophy. First, the AS culture revolved around men and their courageous actions; nevertheless this poem is about a woman; a wife. A female speaker is very unusual in AS literature, particularly because she did not carry out any heroic actions. Secondly, even though the allusions to paganism are evident in the text, some Christian principles are intertwined in the verses. Words such as “Fate” (50) and “ill-fortune” (21) serve to reinforce AS‘s pagan beliefs. On the other hand, the Christian ideology has also permeated the text. Endurance is one the most important Christian values. In the poem, the speaker describes how deep her sorrow is; however, she seems to believe that she must embrace that pain for the eternity (43-45). Furthermore, the concepts of “spirit” and “soul” can be linked to Christianity. Thus, The Wife’s Lament can be seen as an example of the syncretism between Anglo-Saxon and Christian values.

By Cinthya Cervantes

The Wanderer (Anglo-Saxon Period)

The title directly introduces the reader to the topic of the literary work; the exile. The Wanderer is a dramatic monologue, in which gloomy feelings about exile are portrayed. When reading The Wanderer, the students face different problems in order to grasp the text such as the unfamiliarity with the AS culture, the historical background, and the language.

AS Culture: The concept of “Comitatus” is crucial when analyzing The Wanderer. In a few words, Comitatus were tiny kingdom, in which the AS social organization was based upon. Since AS did not have a sense of national identity, the Comitatus was everything they had. Thus, there was no life outside the Comitatus. If expelled, the chances of survival were minimal. The first part of The Wanderer manifests the anguish in which the persona is immersed, for he is in exile. He nostalgically remembers the good old days when he was part of the Comitatus and the chieftain was generous towards him.

Historical Background: The Anglo-Saxons were pagans. The Christian campaign in the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms began around 597 A.D. with the conversion of King Albert of Kent. There were irreconcilable differences between paganism and Christianity. However, Christians in their eagerness to convert the AS people allegedly altered the literary texts and adapted them to their beliefs. Past two of The Wanderer is believed to be the result of the syncretism as the attempt to reconcile the AS traditions with the Christian Values. Accordingly, part two can be seen as a homily, that shows the Christian values, while part one portrays the AS philosophy.

Language: Regarding language, it is important to be aware of the fact that we get one of the many versions of the text. The original text was transcribed probably several times. Moreover, it has also been translated over and over again. Thus, some of its original meaning has been lost due to transcriptions and translations. Consequently, the text can be divided in part one and part two for its analysis. The use of a dictionary is essential. Likewise, the student should handle the concept of caesure, alliteration, ubi sunt, and kenning since these were literary devices employed by AS.

By Cinthya Cervantes